References

Every footnote in the guide, in order of first use, with the date we last opened each link.

Footnotes are listed in order of first use. Each entry gives the author or organisation, the date, the title, and the date we last opened the link. Some vendor pages (OpenAI, Perplexity, X, Shodan’s account pages, CourtListener) block automated link checks; we open those by hand at each review.

  1. The New York Times Co. v. Microsoft Corp. et al., No. 1:23-cv-11195-SHS (S.D.N.Y.), now part of In re OpenAI, Inc. Copyright Infringement Litigation, No. 1:25-md-03143. Preservation order of 13 May 2025 (Wang, M.J.). Order text: https://cdn.arstechnica.net/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/NYT-v-OpenAI-Preservation-Order-5-13-25.pdf. OpenAI’s explanation of scope: “How we’re responding to The New York Times’ data demands”, https://openai.com/index/response-to-nyt-data-demands/ (updated 22 October 2025). Accessed 2026-10-09.
  2. Willison, S. (23 October 2025). “OpenAI no longer has to preserve all of its ChatGPT data, with some exceptions.” https://simonwillison.net/2025/Oct/23/openai-no-longer-has-to-preserve/ ; Engadget (October 2025), https://www.engadget.com/ai/openai-no-longer-has-to-preserve-all-of-its-chatgpt-data-with-some-exceptions-192422093.html. The termination order was entered on 9 October 2025 and ended the duty as of 26 September 2025. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  3. Bloomberg Law (5 January 2026). “OpenAI Must Turn Over 20 Million ChatGPT Logs, Judge Affirms.” https://news.bloomberglaw.com/ip-law/openai-must-turn-over-20-million-chatgpt-logs-judge-affirms ; ABA Journal, https://www.abajournal.com/news/article/chatgpt-creator-must-turn-over-20m-chat-logs-in-copyright-litigation-federal-judge-says. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  4. TechCrunch (25 July 2025). “Sam Altman warns there’s no legal confidentiality when using ChatGPT as a therapist.” https://techcrunch.com/2025/07/25/sam-altman-warns-theres-no-legal-confidentiality-when-using-chatgpt-as-a-therapist/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  5. The Business Research Company (24 September 2026), Open Source Intelligence Global Market Report, https://www.thebusinessresearchcompany.com/report/open-source-intelligence-global-market-report ; Mordor Intelligence (September 2026), https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/open-source-intelligence-market ; Global Market Insights (December 2025), https://www.gminsights.com/industry-analysis/open-source-intelligence-osint-market. Earlier editions cited a MarketsandMarkets figure of $14.85 billion growing to $49.39 billion; that firm publishes no OSINT report and we could not find the figure in any source. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  6. Anthropic. “Pricing.” https://claude.com/pricing. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  7. Anthropic. “Models overview.” https://platform.claude.com/docs/en/about-claude/models/overview. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  8. Anthropic (28 August 2025). “Updates to Consumer Terms and Privacy Policy.” https://www.anthropic.com/news/updates-to-our-consumer-terms. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  9. Anthropic. “Privacy Policy”, effective 10 September 2026. https://www.anthropic.com/legal/privacy. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  10. Anthropic Privacy Center (updated 1 July 2026). “How long do you store my data?” https://privacy.claude.com/en/articles/10023548-how-long-do-you-store-my-data. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  11. Anthropic Privacy Center (updated 16 March 2026). “Is my data used for model training?” https://privacy.claude.com/en/articles/10023580-is-my-data-used-for-model-training. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  12. OpenAI Help Center. “How are files vs chats retained?” https://help.openai.com/en/articles/8983778-how-are-files-vs-chats-retained ; OpenAI. “Your data” (API), https://developers.openai.com/api/docs/guides/your-data. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  13. OpenAI (17 July 2025). “Introducing ChatGPT agent.” https://openai.com/index/introducing-chatgpt-agent/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  14. BGR (2026). “OpenAI is discontinuing its ChatGPT Atlas browser.” https://www.bgr.com/2212396/openai-chatgpt-browser-atlas-discontinued/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  15. Fast Company (30 July 2025). “Google is indexing ChatGPT conversations.” https://www.fastcompany.com/91376687/google-indexing-chatgpt-conversations ; Search Engine Journal, https://www.searchenginejournal.com/openai-is-pulling-shared-chatgpt-chats-from-google-search/552671/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  16. Google. “Gemini Apps Privacy Hub.” https://support.google.com/gemini/answer/13594961. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  17. Google (January 2026). “Personal Intelligence in the Gemini app.” https://blog.google/innovation-and-ai/products/gemini-app/personal-intelligence. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  18. Google Cloud. “Data governance” (generative AI). https://docs.cloud.google.com/generative-ai-app-builder/docs/data-governance. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  19. Business Today (3 October 2025). “Perplexity opens Comet browser to all users.” https://www.businesstoday.in/amp/technology/news/story/perplexity-opens-comet-browser-to-all-users-adds-background-assistant-for-max-subscribers-496681-2025-10-03. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  20. The Decoder (August 2025). “Brave discovers a security flaw in Perplexity’s Comet browser.” https://the-decoder.com/brave-discovers-a-security-flaw-in-perplexitys-comet-browser/ ; Willison, S. (25 August 2025), https://simonwillison.net/2025/Aug/25/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  21. Search Engine Journal (4 August 2025). “Cloudflare delists and blocks Perplexity from crawling websites.” https://www.searchenginejournal.com/cloudflare-delists-and-blocks-perplexity-from-crawling-websites/552899/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  22. Mistral AI Help Center (updated 31 August 2026). Data usage and training policy. https://help.mistral.ai/en/articles/347617. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  23. Mistral AI (17 July 2025). “Le Chat dives deep.” https://mistral.ai/fr/news/le-chat-dives-deep. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  24. Mistral AI. “Changelog.” https://docs.mistral.ai/resources/changelogs. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  25. X Help Center. “About Grok.” https://help.x.com/en/using-x/about-grok. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  26. Michigan Public and NPR (9 July 2025). “Elon Musk’s AI chatbot, Grok, started calling itself ‘MechaHitler’.” https://www.michiganpublic.org/2025-07-09/elon-musks-ai-chatbot-grok-started-calling-itself-mechahitler. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  27. TechCrunch (20 August 2025). “Thousands of Grok chats are now searchable on Google.” https://techcrunch.com/2025/08/20/thousands-of-grok-chats-are-now-searchable-on-google/ ; Forbes Australia, https://www.forbes.com.au/news/innovation/xai-published-hundreds-of-thousands-of-grok-chatbot-conversations/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  28. CNN (12 January 2026). “Indonesia and Malaysia block Grok.” https://edition.cnn.com/2026/01/12/business/indonesia-malaysia-grok-elon-musk-intl-hnk ; Ofcom (12 January 2026), https://www.ofcom.org.uk/online-safety/illegal-and-harmful-content/ofcom-launches-investigation-into-x-over-grok-sexualised-imagery ; The Register (26 January 2026), https://www.theregister.com/2026/01/26/ec_open_new_investigation_into/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  29. PCWorld (October 2025). “Microsoft adds Microsoft 365 Premium, cuts Copilot Pro.” https://www.pcworld.com/article/2925962/microsoft-adds-microsoft-365-premium-cuts-copilot-pro.html. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  30. Anthropic (15 April 2025). “Claude takes research to new places.” https://claude.com/blog/research. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  31. Anthropic (1 May 2025, updated 3 June 2025). “Claude can now connect to your world.” https://claude.com/blog/integrations. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  32. Willison, S. (16 February 2025). “Introducing Perplexity Deep Research” (with dates for Gemini and OpenAI). https://simonwillison.net/2025/Feb/16/introducing-perplexity-deep-research/ ; ARY News (17 February 2025) on Grok 3 and DeepSearch, https://arynews.tv/grok-3-musk-unveils-chatgpt-rival ; Topedia (June 2025) on Microsoft Researcher general availability, https://blog-en.topedia.com/2025/06/researcher-and-analyst-agents-moving-to-general-availability/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  33. TechCrunch (26 March 2025). “OpenAI adopts rival Anthropic’s standard for connecting AI models to data.” https://techcrunch.com/2025/03/26/openai-adopts-rival-anthropics-standard-for-connecting-ai-models-to-data/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  34. Linux Foundation (9 December 2025). “Linux Foundation announces the formation of the Agentic AI Foundation.” https://www.linuxfoundation.org/press/linux-foundation-announces-the-formation-of-the-agentic-ai-foundation ; Anthropic, https://www.anthropic.com/news/donating-the-model-context-protocol-and-establishing-of-the-agentic-ai-foundation. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  35. Model Context Protocol. “Official MCP Registry.” https://registry.modelcontextprotocol.io/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  36. Model Context Protocol. “servers-archived” (archived 29 May 2025). https://github.com/modelcontextprotocol/servers-archived. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  37. GitHub. “github-mcp-server.” https://github.com/github/github-mcp-server. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  38. Exa. “exa-mcp-server.” https://github.com/exa-labs/exa-mcp-server. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  39. Tavily. “tavily-mcp.” https://github.com/tavily-ai/tavily-mcp. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  40. Zencoder. “slack-mcp-server.” https://github.com/zencoderai/slack-mcp-server. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  41. OpenSanctions. “Open source software.” https://www.opensanctions.org/docs/opensource/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  42. BurtTheCoder. “mcp-shodan” (community project, MIT). https://github.com/BurtTheCoder/mcp-shodan. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  43. OpenAI. “Memory and new controls for ChatGPT.” https://openai.com/index/memory-and-new-controls-for-chatgpt/ ; TechCrunch (10 April 2025), https://techcrunch.com/2025/04/10/openai-updates-chatgpt-to-reference-your-other-chats/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  44. Anthropic (2025). “Bringing memory to Claude.” https://www.anthropic.com/news/memory. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  45. Cohere (20 May 2026). “Introducing Command A+: Making sovereign agentic capabilities available to all.” https://cohere.com/blog/command-a-plus. Weights on Hugging Face under Apache 2.0, 218B total and 25B active parameters. Accessed 2026-10-12.
  46. Wu, S., Irsoy, O., Lu, S., et al. (2023). “BloombergGPT: A Large Language Model for Finance.” arXiv:2303.17564. https://arxiv.org/abs/2303.17564. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  47. Markets Media (2026). “Bloomberg introduces agentic AI to the Terminal.” https://www.marketsmedia.com/bloomberg-introduces-agentic-ai-to-the-terminal/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  48. The Decoder (December 2025). “Meta is reportedly ditching open Llama models for Avocado.” https://the-decoder.com/meta-is-reportedly-ditching-open-llama-models-for-avocado-a-closed-model-built-for-direct-sales/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  49. CNBC (10 August 2026). “Meta releases Muse Glimmer open-weight AI model.” https://www.cnbc.com/2026/08/10/meta-muse-glimmer-open-weight-ai.html. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  50. The Decoder (April 2025). “Meta releases first multimodal Llama 4 models, leaves EU out in the cold.” https://the-decoder.com/meta-releases-first-multimodal-llama-4-models-leaves-eu-out-in-the-cold/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  51. DeepSeek (24 April 2026). “DeepSeek V4 Preview.” https://api-docs.deepseek.com/news/news260424/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  52. TechCrunch (3 February 2025, updated). “DeepSeek: the countries and agencies that have banned the AI company’s tech.” https://techcrunch.com/2025/02/03/deepseek-the-countries-and-agencies-that-have-banned-the-ai-companys-tech. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  53. The Register (5 August 2025). “OpenAI releases open-weight gpt-oss models.” https://www.theregister.com/2025/08/05/openai_open_gpt/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  54. IBM Granite model collection on Hugging Face, https://huggingface.co/ibm-granite ; I Programmer (October 2025), “IBM launches Granite version 4.0 and Granite-Docling”, https://www.i-programmer.info/news/80-java/18409-ibm-launches-granite-version-40-and-granite-docling-.html ; DataNorth (August 2026) on Granite 4.2, https://datanorth.ai/news/ibm-releases-granite-4-2. Release details for 4.1 and 4.2 are from secondary reporting; check the model cards. Accessed 2026-10-12.
  55. Moonshot AI. “Kimi K3.” https://github.com/MoonshotAI/Kimi-K3. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  56. Hugging Face. Models tagged GGUF (210,163 on 9 October 2026). https://huggingface.co/models?library=gguf. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  57. Ollama (19 September 2025). “Cloud models.” https://ollama.com/blog/cloud-models. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  58. LM Studio (8 July 2025). “LM Studio is free for work.” https://lmstudio.ai/blog/free-for-work. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  59. Open WebUI. “License.” https://docs.openwebui.com/license/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  60. Willison, S. (22 October 2025), quoting OpenAI CISO Dane Stuckey on the Atlas launch. https://simonwillison.net/2025/Oct/22/openai-ciso-on-atlas/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  61. Willison, S. (16 June 2025). “The lethal trifecta for AI agents.” https://simonwillison.net/2025/Jun/16/the-lethal-trifecta/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  62. Ogundoyin, S. O., Ikram, M., Asghar, H. J., Zhao, B. Z. H., and Kaafar, D. (13 May 2025). “A Large-Scale Empirical Analysis of Custom GPTs’ Vulnerabilities in the OpenAI Ecosystem.” arXiv:2505.08148. https://arxiv.org/abs/2505.08148. Peer-reviewed as “Unsafe by Design?”, WPES ’25, doi:10.1145/3733802.3764054. Earlier editions of this guide cited these figures to the wrong paper. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  63. Willison, S. (9 April 2025) on Invariant Labs’ tool poisoning research, https://simonwillison.net/2025/Apr/9/mcp-prompt-injection/ ; Docker (2025), “MCP horror stories: the WhatsApp data exfiltration issue”, https://www.docker.com/blog/mcp-horror-stories-whatsapp-data-exfiltration-issue/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  64. CSO Online (September 2025). “Trust in MCP takes first in-the-wild hit via squatted Postmark connector.” https://csoonline.com/article/4064009/trust-in-mcp-takes-first-in-the-wild-hit-via-squatted-postmark-connector.html. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  65. JFrog (9 July 2025). “CVE-2025-6514: critical mcp-remote RCE vulnerability.” https://jfrog.com/blog/2025-6514-critical-mcp-remote-rce-vulnerability/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  66. CSO Online (December 2025). “Three vulnerabilities found in Anthropic Git MCP server.” https://www.csoonline.com/article/4119571/three-vulnerabilities-found-in-anthropic-git-mcp-server-could-let-attackers-tamper-with-llms.html. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  67. OWASP GenAI Security Project (9 December 2025). “OWASP Top 10 for Agentic Applications for 2026.” https://genai.owasp.org/resource/owasp-top-10-for-agentic-applications-for-2026/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  68. Anthropic (26 August 2025). “Piloting Claude for Chrome.” https://www.anthropic.com/news/claude-for-chrome. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  69. OHCHR and UC Berkeley Human Rights Center (2022; first published 1 December 2020). Berkeley Protocol on Digital Open Source Investigations, HR/PUB/20/2. https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/2024-01/OHCHR_BerkeleyProtocol.pdf ; UN Digital Library record, https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3973652 ; project page, https://humanrights.berkeley.edu/programs-projects/tech-human-rights-program/berkeley-protocol-digital-open-source-investigations. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  70. Mozilla Foundation (June 2025). “Meta: help users stop accidentally sharing private AI conversations.” https://www.mozillafoundation.org/en/campaigns/meta-help-users-stop-accidentally-sharing-private-ai-conversations/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
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  72. Charlotin, D. “AI Hallucination Cases” database. https://www.damiencharlotin.com/hallucinations/. Counts of about 87 (May 2025) and 2,028 (9 September 2026) from the database and secondary reporting. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  73. Anthropic (13 November 2025). “Disrupting the first reported AI-orchestrated cyber espionage campaign.” https://www.anthropic.com/news/disrupting-AI-espionage. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  74. Postma, F., Bellingcat (14 August 2025). “LLMs vs geolocation: GPT-5 performs worse than other AI models.” https://www.bellingcat.com/resources/2025/08/14/llms-vs-geolocation-gpt-5-performs-worse-than-other-ai-models/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  75. NBC News (30 September 2025). “OpenAI launches Sora 2 app.” https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/openai-sora-2-app-video-chatgpt-creation-rcna234973. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  76. Google (September 2025). “Trusted images: C2PA Content Credentials on Pixel 10.” https://blog.google/security/pixel-android-trusted-images-c2pa-content-credentials/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  77. Google (November 2025). “AI image verification in the Gemini app.” https://blog.google/technology/ai/ai-image-verification-gemini-app/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  78. Chandra, N. A., et al. (2025). “Deepfake-Eval-2024: A Multi-Modal In-the-Wild Benchmark of Deepfakes Circulated in 2024.” arXiv:2503.02857. https://arxiv.org/abs/2503.02857. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  79. TrueMedia.org (7 January 2025). “Shutting down TrueMedia.” https://truemedia.org/post/shutting-down-truemedia ; GeekWire (2025) on the Georgetown revival, https://www.geekwire.com/2025/truemedia-is-back-deepfake-detection-tool-revived-now-managed-by-georgetown-university/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
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  81. Malwarebytes (May 2025) on FBI IC3 public service announcement of 15 May 2025. https://www.malwarebytes.com/blog/news/2025/05/scammers-are-using-ai-to-impersonate-senior-officials-warns-fbi. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  82. Fortune (10 July 2025). “Deepfake Marco Rubio AI voice scams.” https://fortune.com/2025/07/10/deepfake-marco-rubio-ai-voice-scams. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  83. IMAGEO-Bench (2025). arXiv:2508.01608. https://arxiv.org/abs/2508.01608. Accessed 2026-10-12.
  84. 404 Media (January 2025). “The powerful AI tool that cops (or stalkers) can use to geolocate photos in seconds.” https://www.404media.co/the-powerful-ai-tool-that-cops-or-stalkers-can-use-to-geolocate-photos-in-seconds/ ; heise (2025), https://www.heise.de/en/news/Graylark-closes-public-access-to-AI-tool-for-geolocation-10252293.html. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  85. Anthropic (27 August 2025). “Detecting and countering misuse of AI: August 2025.” https://www.anthropic.com/news/detecting-countering-misuse-aug-2025. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  86. Anthropic (September 2026). “Threat intelligence report: September 2026.” https://www.anthropic.com/threat-intelligence-report-september-2026. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  87. OpenAI. “Disrupting malicious uses of AI” (report series). https://openai.com/index/disrupting-malicious-ai-uses. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  88. Google Threat Intelligence Group (5 November 2025). “GTIG AI threat tracker: advances in threat actor usage of AI tools.” https://blog.google/technology/safety-security/gtig-report-ai-malware/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  89. Maltego. “Pricing.” https://www.maltego.com/pricing/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  90. Maltego (19 May 2025). “Maltego welcomes Hunchly.” https://www.maltego.com/blog/maltego-welcomes-hunchly-to-expand-osint-capabilities/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  91. Maltego Docs. “What is the AI Assistant?” https://docs.maltego.com/en/support/solutions/articles/15000061164-what-is-the-ai-assistant-. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  92. Shodan. “Billing.” https://account.shodan.io/billing. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  93. Censys Docs. “Platform credits: Free and Starter.” https://docs.censys.com/docs/platform-credits-free-starter. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  94. Intelligence X. “Products.” https://intelx.io/product. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  95. Lampyre. “Pricing.” https://lampyre.io/pricing. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  96. OSINT Industries. “Pricing.” https://www.osint.industries/pricing. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  97. Epieos. “Pricing.” https://epieos.com/pricing. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  98. Intel 471 (November 2022). “Intel 471 acquires SpiderFoot.” https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/intel-471-acquires-spiderfoot-301665787.html ; repository, https://github.com/smicallef/spiderfoot. Accessed 2026-10-09.
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  101. Blackdot Solutions. “FAQ.” https://blackdotsolutions.com/faq. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  102. Cylect. https://ai.cylect.io/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  103. OpenSanctions. “API metering.” https://www.opensanctions.org/faq/api/metering/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
  104. OpenCorporates. “Pricing.” https://opencorporates.com/pricing/. Accessed 2026-10-09.
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  106. Microsoft (2025). “Bing Search APIs retirement.” https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/lifecycle/announcements/bing-search-api-retirement. Accessed 2026-10-09.
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  110. Exa. “Pricing.” https://exa.ai/pricing. Accessed 2026-10-09.
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